tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-17097949029856112982024-03-05T07:04:49.874-08:00Ingeniería HidraúlicaAnonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07245158417901323882noreply@blogger.comBlogger3125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1709794902985611298.post-958691427241216562013-01-03T00:21:00.004-08:002013-01-06T08:56:32.352-08:00CENTRALES HIDROELÉCTRICAS DEL ECUADOR<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<h1>
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-weight: normal;">El Proyecto hidroeléctrico Paute fue concebido por el Ingeniero Daniel
Palacios Izquierdo, visionario profesional en cuyo honor lleva su nombre la
presa de Amaluza que permite la regulación y conducción de las aguas para la
Central Molino. El Ingeniero Palacios como Superintendente de Campo de la
Compañía Inglesa Shell, tenía bajo su control los estudios Geofísicos y
Geológicos, y su centro de operaciones era el oriente ecuatoriano, posteriormente,
como funcionario del Centro de Reconversión Económica del Azuay Cañar y Morona
Santiago CREA; durante sus recorridos descubrió el accidente geográfico que por
sus características consistía en un recurso aprovechable para la generación
hidroeléctrica. <br />
<br />
El río Paute portador de un gran caudal en el sitio denominado Cola de San
Pablo, en corta distancia medida en línea recta, presenta una gran diferencia
de niveles, haciéndose aprovechable esa energía potencial; esta condición
favorable fue expuesta en su informe ante las autoridades superiores y de la
provincia, sin embargo para esa época, esta idea no fue fácilmente entendida,
resultaba una propuesta de una persona ilusa, por la magnitud de las obras de
Ingeniería y sus costos. <br />
<br />
Fue tanta la insistencia de este profesional, que el Directorio del CREA
resolvió encargar a una empresa Americana la realización de los primeros
estudios, luego de los que, al constatar que no era una concepción disparatada;
en 1961 se realizan gestiones con INECEL de reciente creación, y para Mayo de
1962, técnicos japoneses de la Electrical Power Co. luego del reconocimiento
preliminar, confirman el recurso. <br />
<br />
INECEL, encargado de la planificación y desarrollo de la electrificación,
contrata los estudios de pre-factibilidad y factibilidad; para esos años el
país contaba ya con recursos gracias a la exploración y explotación petrolera
que se presentaba con grandes resultados. Bajo estas circunstancias el Gobierno
Nacional lo definió como de ejecución prioritaria, por ser de beneficio para el
desarrollo del país y se decía la mejor alternativa de "SEMBRAR EL
PETRÓLEO" recurso NO RENOVABLE. Como señala el Plan Maestro de
Electrificación, el objetivo de Paute y de otros proyectos de este género, está
dirigido a la utilización preponderante de los recursos hídricos que permitan
sustituir los recursos no renovables, por fuentes renovables en la generación
de energía eléctrica. </span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Ante la decisión tomada y considerando que para la época la demanda
de energía era muy pequeña, de exigencia prácticamente doméstica, se
presentaban tantas especulaciones entre ellas que se llegaría a exportar
grandes cantidades de energía a los vecinos países de Colombia y Perú. El
Sistema Hidroeléctrico Paute con estos antecedentes, se definió como el aprovechamiento
integral del recurso hídrico, mediante tres centrales: Molino, Mazar y
Sopladora con la construcción de tres embalses: Amaluza, Mazar y Marcayacu
(esta última en el diseño original), situados en serie, hablándose también en
la época de otras instalaciones en cascada hasta el Cantón Méndez para una </span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-weight: normal;">capacidad
a ser instalada total alrededor de 2600MW.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"></span></h1>
<br />
<h1 style="mso-list: none;">
<span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="font-weight: normal;"></span></span><br /></span></span></h1>
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<span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: purple;"><b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">Central Hidroeléctrica
Agoyán</span></u></b></span></span></span></div>
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<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">La Central Agoyán fue concebida para aprovechar el caudal del Río Pastaza,
localizada en la provincia de Tungurahua a 180 Km. al Sureste de Quito y a 5
Km. al este de la ciudad de Baños en el sector denominado Agoyán de la
parroquia Ulba, en la via principal de entrada al sector amazonico ecuatoriano.<br /><br />
La cuenca del rio Pastaza tiene una extension de 8270 Km2, en las provincias de
Cotopaxi, Chimborazo y Tungurahua.
</span><span style="font-size: large;"><br /><br />
La extensión global de la zona de influencia de la Central es de 5.00 Km2 con
una
</span><span style="font-size: large;"><b>producción media anual de 1.080 GWH</b>. El nivel maximo del embalse se
encuentra a una altitud de 1651 m.s.n.m.<br /><br />
La presa esta formada por:
</span><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
- Dos desagües de fondo de 9m. de ancho por 9m. de altura, para la limpieza de
sedimentos y vaciado del embalse. <br />
- Tres vertederos de excesos de 15m. de altura por 12m. de ancho. <br />
- Un estanque desarenador semi-natural de 150m. de largo por 90m. de ancho. <br />
- Un desagüe de fondo del desarenador y estructura de la toma. <br />
- Túnel de carga cuya toma está ubicada en el cuerpo de la presa; tiene una
longitud de 2378m. y 6m. de diámetro interno. Conduce un caudal de 120m3 por
segundo. <br />
- Tubería de presión subterránea vertical de 5m de diámetro promedio. <br /><br />
Captaciones y conducción
</span><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
Al Pastaza aportan los Ríos: Chambo y Patate.</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: purple;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">Central Hidroeléctrica San Francisco</span></u></span></span></b></span></span></div>
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<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">La central San Francisco se construyó desde febrero de 2004 y dio inicio a la
generación comercial la primera unidad (Unidad 02) el 03 de mayo del 2007, la
otra Unidad U1 a principios de Junio -07. La central San Francisco está ubicada
entre la cuenca media y baja del Río Pastaza, municipio de Baños de Agua Santa,
Provincia de Tungurahua, región central del Ecuador. La central San Francisco
tiene dos (2) unidades generadoras de 115 MW cada una, con 230 MW de potencia
instalada.<br /><br />
La Central Hidroeléctrica San Francisco tiene una </span>
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>potencia instalada de 230
MW</b> para la producción de energía hidroeléctrica y la demanda del Sistema
Nacional Interconectado del Ecuador.</span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: small;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"><br /></span></span></u></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: purple;"><u><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">Central Hidroeléctrica Pucará-Pisayambo</span></span></u></span></b></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: purple;"><u><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span></u></span></b></span></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhr3tzJ62btEQsrR_qZmStdf_FXwEOywZnV466laiglxL4efe8O00Fp5zV-_fJgDWG4aq_yyljmgDke6GXprDVBPNLftr4Job9ZgftxXgN7DSbas9ylIFZ4DrVhmcMi37hNfCVw1z8K0g0/s1600/PI4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="296" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhr3tzJ62btEQsrR_qZmStdf_FXwEOywZnV466laiglxL4efe8O00Fp5zV-_fJgDWG4aq_yyljmgDke6GXprDVBPNLftr4Job9ZgftxXgN7DSbas9ylIFZ4DrVhmcMi37hNfCVw1z8K0g0/s400/PI4.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="color: purple;"><u><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;"></span></span></u></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">El Proyecto Pisayambo fue concebido para aprovechar una zona lacustre,
localizada en la Cordillera Oriental de los Andes, aproximadamente a 35 Km. de
Píllaro Provincia del Tungurahua. El embalse esta ubicado dentro del Parque
Nacional Llanganates. <br /><br />
La extensión global de la zona de influencia del proyecto es de 250 Km2, con
una </span>
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>producción media anual de 230 GWH</b>.<br /><br />
La laguna de Pisayambo constituye el embalse de la central, y se encuentra a
una altitud de 3.537 m.s.n.m. con una extensión de 8 Km2 y a una distancia
aproximadamente de 160 Km al sureste de Quito. </span>
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /><br /><br />
Captaciones y conducción:</span>
</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: blue; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">Al reservorio aportan los Ríos: El Roncador, El
Milín, El Tambo. Las aguas de los ríos Talatag, Quillopaccha y Agualongopungo
son conducidas al embalse mediante obras de captación.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: purple;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: purple;"><u><b>DISFRUTE DE LOS SIGUIENTES VIDEOS SOBRE LAS MARAVILLAS MODERNAS DE LA INGENIERÍA HIDRAÚLICA:</b></u></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Referencias:</span></u></b><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></div>
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<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=788694">http://www.skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=788694</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LpFGRPUFuj0"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LpFGRPUFuj0</span></a><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></li>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07245158417901323882noreply@blogger.com28tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1709794902985611298.post-86249292292933944422013-01-02T23:55:00.004-08:002013-01-06T08:52:54.098-08:00DEFINICIÓN DE INGENIERÍA HIDRAÚLICA<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span style="color: magenta;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 18pt;">La ingeniería hidráulica, es una de las
ramas de la ingeniería civil.</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjyMiZ5bqltIdFbX7kiTODK_jKNZ9gISXo3Z7r8c8fiVNQb2EHpucF3525q3EtPKroMFYnOVfchV_jDJZ1vy0enmE7o9jScySrqCQxSnv48Z16-43_6WyZ-g_IRse9UVXkNzHZWsXIN7Mc/s1600/PICK+7.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="278" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjyMiZ5bqltIdFbX7kiTODK_jKNZ9gISXo3Z7r8c8fiVNQb2EHpucF3525q3EtPKroMFYnOVfchV_jDJZ1vy0enmE7o9jScySrqCQxSnv48Z16-43_6WyZ-g_IRse9UVXkNzHZWsXIN7Mc/s400/PICK+7.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: ES-EC;"></span><span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: ES-EC;">Esta se encarga de proyectar y ejecutar obras que
tienen relación directa con el agua, y se emplea para distintas funciones,
entre ellas:</span></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: ES-EC;"> La
utilización del agua. </span></span></li>
</ul>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: ES-EC;"> Para
la obtención de energía hidráulica. </span></span></li>
</ul>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: ES-EC;"> Para
la irrigación. </span></span></li>
</ul>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: ES-EC;"> Para
la potabilización. </span></span></li>
</ul>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: ES-EC;"> Para
la canalización. </span></span></li>
</ul>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo6; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: ES-EC;"> Para
la construcción de estructuras en mares, ríos, lagos.</span></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: magenta;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 18pt;">Función de un
ingeniero hidráulico</span></u></b></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="color: red; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: ES-EC;"></span></u></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: ES-EC;">Los ingenieros hidráulicos, <b>tienen la función de
realizar diseños, luego materializarlos y operar las obras hidráulicas</b>, a
base de investigaciones, pues esta se apoya en gran manera de los resultados
experimentales. Todas las teorías importantes para la ingeniería
hidráulica, a su vez son sustentadas por el uso de instrumentos matemáticos,
que van modernizándose de acorde a los tiempos; de todas maneras siempre se
obtiene algún coeficiente o fórmula empírica, la cual resulta ser la manera en
que se resuelven los problemas prácticos, luego de <b>haberla determinado por
medio de experimentos de laboratorio, de obras construidas y de operantes</b>.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: magenta;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 18pt;">Entre
las funciones que desempeñan los ingenieros hidráulicos se encuentran:</span></u></b></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: magenta;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 18pt;"><br /></span></u></b></span></div>
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<li><span style="color: blue;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 20pt;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"></span></span></u></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: ES-EC;">La elaboración de grandes estructuras como son
las presas, las esclusas, los canales navegables, los puertos, entre otros
tipos de obras.</span></span></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: ES-EC;"> Todo tipo de obras que se relacionan con la
agricultura, pues esta es una de las especialidades de la ingeniería hidráulica,
de hecho su nombre es hidráulica agrícola, en ella se realizan: <b>sistemas de
riego y de drenaje</b>.</span></span></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: ES-EC;"> La crearon de obras ambientales, tales como:
presas filtrantes que ayudan a controlar la erosión, defensas. </span></span></li>
</ul>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjyMiZ5bqltIdFbX7kiTODK_jKNZ9gISXo3Z7r8c8fiVNQb2EHpucF3525q3EtPKroMFYnOVfchV_jDJZ1vy0enmE7o9jScySrqCQxSnv48Z16-43_6WyZ-g_IRse9UVXkNzHZWsXIN7Mc/s1600/PICK+7.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="139" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjyMiZ5bqltIdFbX7kiTODK_jKNZ9gISXo3Z7r8c8fiVNQb2EHpucF3525q3EtPKroMFYnOVfchV_jDJZ1vy0enmE7o9jScySrqCQxSnv48Z16-43_6WyZ-g_IRse9UVXkNzHZWsXIN7Mc/s200/PICK+7.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">PRESA</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqJXPP1PFlMvG3kEKZM8qi6farXxeqsLwTjS8MY8x4XU9b1croGlRjXtp-qRViOQZWp8_b7EmEHJoZ_MZF0vY9bDCb8uC1JHA193vh_Yufc0hSlW-IGYYbaXBH6z91oVoPV_U_zkF1Djk/s1600/PICK10.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="148" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqJXPP1PFlMvG3kEKZM8qi6farXxeqsLwTjS8MY8x4XU9b1croGlRjXtp-qRViOQZWp8_b7EmEHJoZ_MZF0vY9bDCb8uC1JHA193vh_Yufc0hSlW-IGYYbaXBH6z91oVoPV_U_zkF1Djk/s200/PICK10.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">SISTEMA DE RIEGO</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<br />
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</div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRSjCDLPUOaL5ov6XNRYqWzX8ydqdK5L6fbO1G8Rh_dcKSG1hnYHJ0TnGxd5XA6cTOxfFVtE1HuAXNpPBzswqW96DTW-_4Tn_xXPKHfOujOVEaq7dYbEHx208UnC1hVdXRhOzUub_FPd4/s1600/PICK+11.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRSjCDLPUOaL5ov6XNRYqWzX8ydqdK5L6fbO1G8Rh_dcKSG1hnYHJ0TnGxd5XA6cTOxfFVtE1HuAXNpPBzswqW96DTW-_4Tn_xXPKHfOujOVEaq7dYbEHx208UnC1hVdXRhOzUub_FPd4/s200/PICK+11.jpg" width="166" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">DRENAJE</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<u><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Referencias:</span></b></u></div>
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<li><a href="http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingenier%C3%ADa_civil%20">http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingenier%C3%ADa_civil </a></li>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07245158417901323882noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1709794902985611298.post-1918585638241131462013-01-02T23:34:00.004-08:002013-01-06T08:53:56.094-08:00INTRODUCCIÓN<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<u><span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Historia</span></b></span></u></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: ES-EC;">La
ingeniería civil es la aplicación de los principios <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1709794902985611298" title="Física">físicos</a> y
científicos, y su historia está estrechamente vinculada a los avances en el
conocimiento de la física y las <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1709794902985611298" title="Matemáticas">matemáticas</a>
a través de la historia. Debido a que el campo de aplicación de la ingeniería
civil es muy amplio, incluyendo varias subdisciplinas, su historia está
relacionada con el estudio y la comprensión de estructuras, <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1709794902985611298" title="Ciencia de materiales">ciencia de materiales</a>, <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1709794902985611298" title="Geografía">geografía</a>,
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1709794902985611298" title="Geología">geología</a>,
suelos, <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1709794902985611298" title="Hidrología">hidrología</a>, <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1709794902985611298" title="Medio ambiente">medio
ambiente</a>, <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1709794902985611298" title="Mecánica">mecánica</a> y otros campos.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: ES-EC;">En la <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1709794902985611298" title="Historia antigua">antigüedad</a>
y en la <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1709794902985611298" title="Edad media">edad
media</a>, la mayoría de las construcciones de obras arquitectónicas se llevó a
cabo por los artesanos, como albañiles y carpinteros, pasando a ser maestro de
obras. El conocimiento se mantuvo en los gremios y rara vez cambiado por los
avances que iban ocurriendo. Estructuras, caminos y la infraestructura
existente era repetitiva, e incrementaba en escala. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: blue; line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: ES-EC;">Uno de
los primeros ejemplos del uso de la física y las matemáticas aplicables al uso
de la ingeniería civil es el trabajo de <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1709794902985611298" title="Arquímedes">Arquímedes</a>
en siglo III a.C., incluyendo el <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1709794902985611298" title="Principio de Arquímedes">principio de Arquímedes</a> y la solución al
bombeo de agua gracias al <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1709794902985611298" title="Tornillo de Arquímedes">tornillo</a> que inventó. <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1709794902985611298" title="Brahmagupta">Brahmagupta</a>,
un matemático <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1709794902985611298" title="India">indio</a>,
utilizó la aritmética en el siglo VII d.C., basado en la <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1709794902985611298" title="Números arábigos">numeración arábiga-hindú</a>, para el cálculo del
volumen de excavaciones.</span></div>
<div style="color: blue;">
<br />
<span lang="ES" style="font-size: 14pt;">La <b>ingeniería
civil</b> es una rama de la <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1709794902985611298" title="Ingeniería">Ingeniería</a>,
que aplica los conocimientos de <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1709794902985611298" title="Física">física</a>, <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1709794902985611298" title="Química">química</a>, <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1709794902985611298" title="Cálculo">cálculo</a>, <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1709794902985611298" title="Geografía">geografía</a>
y <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1709794902985611298" title="Geología">geología</a>
a la elaboración de estructuras, obras <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1709794902985611298" title="Hidráulica">hidráulicas</a>
y de <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1709794902985611298" title="Transporte">transporte</a>.
La denominación "civil" se debe a su origen diferenciado de la <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1709794902985611298" title="Ingeniería militar">ingeniería militar</a>.</span></div>
<div style="color: blue;">
<span lang="ES" style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ansi-language: ES;">Es la disciplina
que le permite al hombre transformar y preservar el medio ambiente en beneficio
de la sociedad. Su objeto es la realización de actividades referentes al
Planeamiento,esta carrera será capaz de proyectar, diseñar, planear, construir
y gestionar obras y sistemas de ingeniería civil, como edificios, estructuras,
carreteras, puentes, túneles, canales, represas, pistas y terminales de
aeropuertos, obras portuarias, conjuntos habitacionales y centros
educacionales, sistemas de abastecimiento de agua y de eliminación de desechos,
centros comerciales y edificios para oficinas, clínicas y hospitales; centrales
telefónicas y eléctricas; centros de recreación y desarrollo turístico; obras
de urbanización, sistemas de transporte colectivo y otros componentes
destinados a satisfacer necesidades de la sociedad y a mejorar la calidad de
vida de los grupos humanos.</span></div>
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<h1 align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: purple;"><span style="font-size: 18pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span></h1>
<h1 align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: purple;"><span style="font-size: 18pt; line-height: 115%;">Ramas de la ingeniería</span></span></h1>
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<span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.5pt;">La
ingeniería en sus orígenes se dividió en las actividades que se desarrollaban
por los militares (ingeniería militar) y aquella que no era militar, a la que
se le llamó civil. En la ingeniería militar se trataban, entre otros, aspectos
relacionados con logística, los materiales, las armas, la construcción, la
artillería. En la ingeniería civil se incluían actividades de construcción que
se realizaban en las ciudades, las empresas, las minas y el pueblo en general.
Producto de los avances técnicos de la revolución industrial la ingeniería
amplió sus campos de acción, demandando la participación de más especialistas
en el diseño, la planeación y la construcción.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.5pt;">A mediados
del siglo XIX producto de la expansión industrial y las necesidades de la
sociedad surgieron nuevas especialidades en la ingeniería, de las que se
destacan la ingeniería mecánica, la ingeniería en minas. Los ingenieros civiles
se distinguen, en aquella época, por hacer trabajos de topografía, agrimensura,
la construcción de edificios, caminos, puentes, puertos y vías de ferrocarril.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.5pt;">La gran
demanda social, intelectual e industrial que se dio durante el siglo XX<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>y el notable establecimiento de instituciones
de enseñanza generó el desarrollo de un gran número de ramas o
especializaciones en campos de la ingeniería, así se pueden encontrar entre
otras especialidades de: aeronáutica, química, eléctrica, mecánica, industrial,
telecomunicaciones, electrónica,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>geología, petrolera, la energía nuclear, eólica y solar, informática.
Además se han desarrollado especialidades en la investigación y explotación de
la energía eólica, solar y nuclear, y en el desarrollo automotriz, de los
alimentos y la genética. </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.5pt;">En el siglo
XXI como producto de la era del conocimiento, se observan claras tendencias del
trabajo multidisciplinario en la ingeniería, esto en campos muy variados, en
los que en otras épocas no sería lógico pensar que los ingenieros podrían
intervenir en ellos, por ejemplo: en finanzas, administración, estudios y
descifrado del genoma humano, en la ingeniería espacial, en la nanotecnología,
en la construcción de servo mecanismos autómatas, en el desarrollo de mejores
sistemas de manejo de la información, en la metrología y otras muchas áreas.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.5pt;">En la
actualidad existen muchas especialidades en las diferentes ramas de la
ingeniería, además de que una de las principales características de los
ingenieros de esta época es que pueden moverse en diferentes campos de la
ciencia y que deben estar aprendiendo durante toda su vida.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.5pt;">A
continuación se presentan algunas especialidades de unas de las ramas de la
ingeniería más comunes.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"></span></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br />
<span style="color: purple;"><b><u><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Ingeniería civil</span></u></b></span><br />
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 3.5pt 0cm 3.5pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 3.5pt 0cm 3.5pt; width: 156.5pt;" valign="top" width="209"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: blue;">ESTRUCTURAS<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 3.5pt 0cm 3.5pt; width: 288.0pt;" valign="top" width="384"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: blue;">Análisis
y estudio de las estructuras necesarias para la construcción de puentes,
edificios, cúpulas, presas, etc.<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 3.5pt 0cm 3.5pt; width: 156.5pt;" valign="top" width="209"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: blue;">TRANSPORTE<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 3.5pt 0cm 3.5pt; width: 288.0pt;" valign="top" width="384"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: blue;">Estudio,
diseño, análisis y construcción de las vías de comunicación terrestres y
marítimas, en ellas se incluyen puertos, aeropuertos, terminales de camiones
y ferrocarriles.<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 3.5pt 0cm 3.5pt; width: 156.5pt;" valign="top" width="209"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: blue;">SANITARIA<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 3.5pt 0cm 3.5pt; width: 288.0pt;" valign="top" width="384"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: blue;">Diseño
y construcción de sistemas de alcantarillado, plantas de tratamiento de aguas
residuales y pluviales, plantas potabilizadoras de agua y sistemas para
evitar la contaminación ambiental.<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 3.5pt 0cm 3.5pt; width: 156.5pt;" valign="top" width="209"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: blue;">HIDRÁULICA<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 3.5pt 0cm 3.5pt; width: 288.0pt;" valign="top" width="384"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: blue;">Detección
de fuentes de agua potable, construcción de instalaciones portuarias y
fluviales, diseño y construcción de sistemas de riego, presas, canales y
redes de distribución.<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 3.5pt 0cm 3.5pt; width: 156.5pt;" valign="top" width="209"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: blue;">GEOTECNIA<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 3.5pt 0cm 3.5pt; width: 288.0pt;" valign="top" width="384"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: blue;">Estudio
y análisis de los suelos y las rocas, en los que se construirán edificios,
carreteras, puentes, presas o plataformas petroleras.<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 3.5pt 0cm 3.5pt; width: 156.5pt;" valign="top" width="209"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: blue;">GEODESIA<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 3.5pt 0cm 3.5pt; width: 288.0pt;" valign="top" width="384"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: blue;">Estudio
y análisis de la superficie de la tierra para determinar los proyectos de
ingeniería civil, para ello se utilizan satélites o la aerofotometría.<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 6; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 3.5pt 0cm 3.5pt; width: 156.5pt;" valign="top" width="209"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: blue;">CONSTRUCCIÓN<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 3.5pt 0cm 3.5pt; width: 288.0pt;" valign="top" width="384"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: blue;">Construyen
lo que los demás ingenieros calculan o diseñan, su especialidad es la
administración de recursos técnicos, financieros y humanos.<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="color: blue;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> <span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">PRESA LAS TRES PUNTAS</span></span></span></div>
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjChA8F6YlfzwmH9vsrxrhQDNvqvqg4LsyhEGoW5ecGyKeqveNWfNhmBWdL0MQV166iQrydqh0-e74kZ2rAqYqGC6hmLiIxqaQhmqZzbkmNFHeG4NlHJbrltIIVwuRFhTAaI_QmgQnoiRA/s1600/PICK.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a><span style="color: blue;"> <span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: blue;">PRESA EN CONSTRUCCIÓN</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsVRN6uVB3g8Rt99x6l_QfeKHYFj6iHyRmDaZKNU7QKcePzN6B4ESEAbb5nySoI3SgQihSeERjLPJjrhNwJyIT5HP1RGGUj9cW4Pr7a25HWJAyZ2Zl-KmefBTQAbZN2moYaNHOb88lAjg/s1600/PICK3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsVRN6uVB3g8Rt99x6l_QfeKHYFj6iHyRmDaZKNU7QKcePzN6B4ESEAbb5nySoI3SgQihSeERjLPJjrhNwJyIT5HP1RGGUj9cW4Pr7a25HWJAyZ2Zl-KmefBTQAbZN2moYaNHOb88lAjg/s400/PICK3.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">PRESA CON TRES DESEMBOCADURAS.</span></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjChA8F6YlfzwmH9vsrxrhQDNvqvqg4LsyhEGoW5ecGyKeqveNWfNhmBWdL0MQV166iQrydqh0-e74kZ2rAqYqGC6hmLiIxqaQhmqZzbkmNFHeG4NlHJbrltIIVwuRFhTAaI_QmgQnoiRA/s1600/PICK.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjChA8F6YlfzwmH9vsrxrhQDNvqvqg4LsyhEGoW5ecGyKeqveNWfNhmBWdL0MQV166iQrydqh0-e74kZ2rAqYqGC6hmLiIxqaQhmqZzbkmNFHeG4NlHJbrltIIVwuRFhTAaI_QmgQnoiRA/s1600/PICK.jpg" /></a></div>
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mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
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mso-para-margin-right:0cm;
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mso-para-margin-left:0cm;
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<u><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Referencias:</span></b></u></div>
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